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Measurements of nonequilibrium interatomic forces using time-domain x-ray scattering
We determine experimentally the excited-state interatomic forces in photoexcited bismuth. The forces are obtained by a constrained least-squares fit of the excited-state dispersion obtained by femtosecond time-resolved x-ray diffuse scattering to a fifteen-nearest neighbor Born-von Karman model. We find that the observed softening of the zone-center $A_{1g}$ optical mode and …